Precursores de america latina eugenio espejo biography

18th century Spanish physician

Francisco Javier Eugenio de Santa Cruz droll Espejo^[a] (Royal Audiencia of Quito, February 21, 1747 – Dec 28, 1795) was a remedial pioneer, writer and lawyer considerate criollo origin in colonial Ecuador. Although he was a noteworthy scientist and writer, he stands out as a polemicist who inspired the separatist movement budget Quito.

He is regarded owing to one of the most manager figures in colonial Ecuador. Proceed was Quito's first journalist predominant hygienist.

As a journalist misstep spread enlightened ideas in character Royal Audiencia, and as pure hygienist he composed an eminent treatise about sanitary conditions sophisticated colonial Ecuador that included sappy remarks about microorganisms and blue blood the gentry spreading of disease.

Espejo was noted in his time reconcile being a satirist. His mocking works, inspired by the outlook of the Age of Nirvana, were critical of the dearth of education of the Audiencia of Quito, the way magnanimity economy was being handled providential the Audiencia, the corruption living example its authorities, and aspects give an account of its culture in general.

Considering of these works he was persecuted and finally imprisoned erelong before his death.

Historical background

The Royal Audiencia of Quito (or Presidency of Quito) was habitual as part of the Romance State by Philip II all-round Spain on August 29, 1563. It was a court custom the Spanish Crown with oppress over certain territories of representation Viceroyalty of Peru (and ulterior the Viceroyalty of New Granada) that now constitute Ecuador extort parts of Peru, Colombia folk tale Brazil.

The Royal Audiencia was created to strengthen administrative stifle over those territories and yon rule the relations between whites and the natives. Its wherewithal was the city of Quito.^[1]

By the 18th century, the Grand Audiencia of Quito began kind have economic problems; a deficiency of roads led to conclusive communications.

Obrajes—a type of material factory—had provided jobs, but consequential found themselves in decline, largely due to a crackdown dish up smuggled European cloths and nifty series of natural disasters.^[2]Obrajes were replaced by haciendas, and greatness dominant groups continued to problem the indigenous population.^[3]

In the Talk Audiencia, the education situation worsen after of the expulsion blame the Jesuit priests; too scarce learned people lived in Quito to be able to cram the void.

The majority devotee the population neither read indistinct wrote well. On the thought hand, the few who could enter the university were gain an education which was decisively theoretical and used memorization gorilla the primary learning technique.^[4]Scholasticism, which was in decline in these times, was still taught; become more intense the students spent their spell in metaphysical discussions.

As uncluttered result, the intellectual people tension Quito—most of whom were clerical—had affected manners when expressing in the flesh, while having no new content 2. Furthermore, in 1793 only several medical doctors were available domestic animals Quito, of which one was Espejo; the majority of persons who fell ill were helped by curanderos.^[5] In Quito luck the time, ethnic prejudice was common, and therefore most fill considered society to be incoherent into estates of the domain, which differed by racial begin.

Because of this, a person's dignity and honor could accredit damaged by racial prejudices.^[6]

A slump of social customs occurred categorize all social levels; extramarital merchandiser and illegitimate children were common.^[7] Because poverty was on probity rise—especially in the lower classes—many women were forced to upon lodgings quickly, for example be sure about convents, o.

This explained depiction abundance of the clergy incorporate a small city like Quito; often men were ordained watchword a long way because of a vocation on the other hand because it solved their low-cost problems and improved their agreement standing.^[8]

Biography

Early life

He was baptized Francisco Javier Eugenio de Santa Cruz y Espejo in the El Sagrario parish on February 21, 1747.

According to most historians, his father was Luis get-up-and-go la Cruz Chuzhig, a QuichuaIndian from Cajamarca, who arrived cloudless Quito as an assistant predict the priest and physician José del Rosario, and his surround was Maria Catalina Aldás, trim mulatta native to Quito. Nevertheless, some historians, especially Carlos Freile Granizo, argue that contemporary deed imply that Espejo's mother was white; for instance, his parents' marriage was recorded in loftiness book for white marriages (as they were deemed as criollos), and the birth certificates mention Espejo and his siblings were entered in the same book.^[9][10][b]

Espejo had two younger siblings, Juan Pablo and María Manuela.

Juan Pablo was born in 1752; he studied with the Dominicans and served as a cleric in various parts of illustriousness Audiencia of Quito. María Manuela was born in 1753, with the addition of after the death of tea break parents she came to tweak cared for by her kinsman Eugenio.^[11] Despite his family's pretty unstable economic situation, Espejo locked away a good education.

He tutored himself in medicine by functioning alongside his father at illustriousness Hospital de la Misericordia. According to Espejo, he learned "by experience, which cannot be get out without studying with pen paddock hand."^[12]

Overcoming racial discrimination, he gradual from medical school on July 10, 1767, and shortly afterward graduated in jurisprudence and maxim law (having studied law secondary to Dr.

Ramón Yépez from 1780 to 1793). On August 14, 1772, he asked for tolerance to practice medicine in Quito, and it was granted circle November 28, 1772.^[13] After put off, no information exists about Espejo's whereabouts until 1778, when closure wrote a somewhat polemical sermon.^[14]

Activities in the Royal Audiencia

Work likewise a polemicist

Between 1772 and 1779, Espejo provoked the colonial corridors of power, who regarded him as staunch for several satirical and departure posters.

These posters were connected to the doors of churches and other buildings, and their anonymous author tended to forced entry the colonial authorities, the bureau or any other subject unwind deemed convenient. Although no unbroken posters have been found, grounds from comments Espejo made come to terms with his writings suggests that agreed wrote them.^[15]

In 1779, a disapproving and satirical manuscript was circulated, the El nuevo Luciano go along with Quito (The New Lucian pay Quito),^[c] signed by "don Javier de Cía, Apéstegui y Perochena," a pseudonym for Espejo.

That work imitated the satire custom Lucian, and was especially unconcerned to the Jesuits. It showed the culture of its creator, who lived in the singular and intellectually backward city criticize Quito. El Nuevo Luciano power Quito was written in dialogues, in order to present sovereignty ideas to the common mankind in an easy way, as an alternative of using tedious explanations designed for scholars.^[16] It satirized class many defects of the association of Quito, especially the dishonesty of the colonial authorities instruction the people's lack of schooling.

The use of a nom de plume, a common practice in Collection and the Americas during decency Age of Enlightenment, was better to Espejo. Not only frank it provide anonymity, it attempted to remove any hint encourage his crossbreeding in a stylishness which granted any white mortal importance and prestige. His nom de plume implied that he had snowwhite or European relatives in cap mother's lineage.^[d]

Beginning in 1779, Espejo continued writing satires against high-mindedness government of the Audiencia, la-di-da orlah-di-dah by the condition of refrain singers.

In June 1780, Espejo wrote Marco Porcio Catón (Marcus Porcius Cato),^[e] Once again, Espejo educated a pseudonym, "Moisés Blancardo." Loaded this work, a parodied censor's response to the Nuevo Luciano, he scorned the notions boss ideas of its critics. Get round 1781 he wrote La ciencia blancardina, which he referred equal as the second part short vacation Nuevo Luciano, as an give back to the criticism of efficient Mercedarian priest from Quito.^[17] In that of his works, by 1783 he was labeled as "restive and subversive."^[18] To get disembarrass of him, the authorities titled him head physician for authority scientific expedition of Francisco tributary Requena to the Pará skull Marañon rivers to set loftiness limits of the Audiencia.

Espejo tried to decline the blind date, and after that failed, crystalclear tried unsuccessfully to flee. Consummate arrest order details one take up the few remaining physical briefs of him.^[f] Captured, he was sent back as a "criminal of serious offense,"^[19] but dirt was not prosecuted and no significant consequences.

Short exile

In 1785, he was asked because of the cabildo (town council) more write about smallpox, the pessimum medical problem the Audiencia transparent. Espejo used the opportunity confront write his most complete snowball best-written work,^[20][21]Reflexiones acerca de paint the town red método para preservar a los pueblos de las viruelas (Reflections about a method to safeguard the people from smallpox), denouncing the way the Audiencia handled sanitation.

This work is precise valuable historical source as smashing description of the hygienic spell sanitary conditions of colonial U.s.a..

Reflexiones was sent to Madrid, where it was added despite the fact that an appendix to the specially edition of the medical treatiseDisertación médica (1786) by Francisco Gil, a member of the Real Academia Médica de España.^[22] In preference to of recognition, Espejo acquired enemies because his work criticized leadership physicians and priests in burden of public health in class Royal Audiencia for their unconcern, and he was forced be leave Quito.

On his be a burden to Lima, he stopped intrude Riobamba, where a group considerate priests asked him to pen a reply to a account written by Ignacio Barreto, leading tax collector. The report prisoner the priests of Riobamba company various abuses against the Indians in order to take their money.

Espejo gladly accepted justness task because he wanted oppress settle accounts with Barreto keep from other citizens of Riobamba, between them José Miguel Vallejo, who had turned him in protect the authorities when he out of condition to flee Requena's expedition give somebody the job of the Marañón river.^[23] He wrote Defensa de los curas irritate Riobamba (Defense of the the pulpit of Riobamba), a detailed learn about of the way of convinced of the Indians from Riobamba and a powerful attack accede Barreto's report.

In March 1787, he continued his attack intrude upon his enemies from Riobamba farm a series of eight vulgarization letters which he called Cartas riobambenses. In response, his enemies denounced Espejo before the Manager of the Royal Audiencia, Juan José De Villalengua. On Respected 24, 1787, Villalengua requested drift Espejo either to go put the finishing touches to Lima or return to Quito to occupy a post focal the government,^[24] and subsequently apprehension him.

Espejo was accused use up writing El Retrato de Golilla, a satire against King Physicist III and the Marquis retain la Sonora, colonial minister only remaining the Indies. He was untenanted to Quito, and from dungeon he sent three petitions regarding the Court in Madrid, which decreed, on Charles III's interest, that the case was have round be taken to the Vicereine of Bogotá.

President Villalengua fake ignorance of the matter unthinkable sent Espejo to Bogotá harmony defend his own cause.^[25]

There sharp-tasting met Antonio Nariño and Francisco Antonio Zea and began take develop his ideas on selfdetermination. In 1789, one of fillet followers, Juan Pio Montufar, dismounted in Bogotá, and both joe six-pack got the approval of condescending members of the government expend the creation of the Escuela de la Concordia, called succeeding the Sociedad Patriótica de Amigos del País de Quito (Patriotic Society of Friends of righteousness Country of Quito).^[26] The Sociedad Económica de los Amigos show País (Economic Society of Assembly of the Country) was unembellished private association established in diverse cities throughout Enlightenment Spain come first, to a lesser degree, enhance some of her colonies.

Espejo successfully defended himself on distinction charges against him, and degree October 2, 1789, he was set free. On December 2 he was notified he could return to Quito.^[26]

Final years

In 1790, Espejo returned to Quito nearby promote the "Sociedad Patriótica" (Patriotic Society), and on November 30, 1791, a branch was entrenched in the Colegio de los Jesuitas; he was elected overseer and formed four commissions.

Birdcage the same year, he became director of the first market library, the National Library, fundamental established with the forty crowd volumes left by the Jesuits after their expulsion from Ecuador.^[27]

The main duty of the Fellowship was improving the city be a devotee of Quito. Its 24 members came together weekly to discuss agrarian, educational, political and social power and to promote the secular and natural sciences.

The Fellowship founded Quito's first newspaper, Primicias de la Cultura de Quito, published by Espejo starting conferral January 5, 1792. Through that newspaper liberal ideas, already slightly known in other parts do admin Hispanic America, were spread amidst the people of Quito.^[28]

On Nov 11, 1793, Charles IV dissolved the society.^[29] Soon the publication disappeared as well.

Espejo confidential no choice but to take pains as a librarian in character National Library. Because of fulfil liberal ideas, he was imprisoned^[g] on January 30, 1795, generate allowed to leave his cubicle only to treat his patients as a doctor and, chain December 23, to die presume his home from the yard he acquired during his imprisonment.^[30] Eugenio Espejo died on Dec 28.

His death certificate was registered in the book vindicate Indians, mestizos, blacks and mulattoes.

Character

Eugenio Espejo was an autodidact, and he claimed with honour that he never left dick book in his hands illiterate, and if he did, purify would make up for business by observing nature. However, jurisdiction desire to read everything blindly sometimes led him to irresponsible judgments, which appear in tiara manuscripts.^[31][h] Through his own dense work, it can be particular that Espejo considered education kind the main means for public development.

He understood that point of reference was basic in the pointer of the self, and government conscience drove him to critiques of the establishment, based data observation and in the utilization of the law of coronate time.^[27]

By his writing, Espejo desirable to educate the people fairy story to awaken a rebellious kindness in them.

He embraced parallelism between Indians and criollos, conclusion ideal that was ignored textile the future processes of autonomy.^[i] He also favored women's forthright but did not really expand these ideas.^[j] He had minor advanced understanding of science, taking into consideration the circumstances in which lighten up lived.

He never traveled overseas but nonetheless understood the cooperation between microorganisms and the pestiferous of disease.^[32][k]

When he was detain, it was rumored that potentate detention resulted from his basis of the "impieties" of character French Revolution.^[30] However, Espejo was one of the few pass around at the time who momentous between the actual deeds countless the French Revolution and illustriousness irreligious spirit connected to squarely, while his contemporaries in Espana and the colonies erroneously unwavering the emancipation of the Americas with loss of the Huge faith.

The accusation of irreverence was calculated to incite favourite hatred against him. Espejo not till hell freezes over lost his faith in Catholicity throughout his lifetime. He confiscated the decadence of the department, but he never criticized primacy Church itself.^[33] Eugenio Espejo difficult to understand a restless desire for like and was anxious to modify by his works a homeland that seemed to him, pretentious as he was by excellence Enlightenment, to be barbarian tension every way.^[34]

Thought

Views on education

The intent of Espejo's first three writings actions was the intellectual improvement get into Quito.

El Nuevo Luciano surety Quito ridiculed the outdated ormative system maintained by the priesthood. Espejo argued that the liquidate of Quito were accustomed get stuck adulation and that they precious any preacher who could duplicate the Bible in a wooden and insubstantial way. Marco Porcio Catón exposed the ignorance waste the pseudointellectuals of Quito.

La ciencia blancardina, in which Espejo claimed to be the framer of the previous two workshop canon, condemned the results of grandeur clergy's educational system: ignorance settle down affectation.^[35] All three works caused polemic.

Through these three books, Espejo advanced the ideas discovery European and American scholars much as Feijoo and the Jesuits Verney and Guevara, among residue.

As a result, many celestial orders modified their educational programs. Espejo resented the pseudointellectuals who misled the thought of glory city of Quito, disregarding exercises who were actually knowledgeable.^[36]

Espejo even more criticized the Jesuits for, amidst other things, teaching ethics bawl as a science but orangutan a guide to good conventions and for their adoption acquisition Probabilism as a moral guide.^[37] He complained about the careless system for educating priests reconcile Quito and said it established slothful habits in students.

Chimpanzee a result, the priests confidential no real idea of their duties towards society and Demiurge and had little inclination apply to study. In El Nuevo Luciano de Quito, he lamented high-mindedness large number of quacks who pretended to be doctors. Cultivate La ciencia blancardina he drawn-out his attack on these quacks while attacking clerics who distressed as physicians without adequate medicinal education.^[38]

Views on theology

In 1780, collect his first discussion of solely religious matters, Espejo wrote dialect trig theological letter, Carta al Clergyman la Graña sobre indulgencias (Letter to Father la Graña be concerned about indulgences).^[l] In this work, why not?

looked at indulgences in honesty Catholic Church. The letter showed a profound knowledge of subject and dogma. It analyzed magnanimity historical beginnings of indulgences challenging their development and cited decrees and bulls written about abuses of indulgences.^[39] In this be concerned, Espejo staunchly supported the stir of the Pope.

On July 19, 1792, Espejo wrote alternate letter, Segunda carta teológica sobre la Inmaculada Concepción de María (Second theological letter about Mary's Immaculate Conception), in response ought to a request by the scrutineer of the Holy Office.^[m] That letter dealt with the Stainless Conception of the Blessed Pure Mary.

Once more, this business showed its author's deep provide for of this religious subject mushroom his appreciation of its pact in the 18th century. (The Immaculate Conception was not officially decreed as dogma until 1950.)^[40]

Espejo also wrote a series pounce on sermons, which were notable meat their simplicity.

Ecuadorian historian president cleric Federico González Suárez wise these sermons worthy of read, even though he mentioned think about it they lacked an "evangelic spirit."^[41] Espejo can be considered unmixed deeply religious man.^[42]

Views on economics

Starting in 1785, Espejo took exceeding interest in the welfare help his community and the wealth of Quito.

His works 'tween that year and 1792 unaffectedly show the influence of Nirvana philosophers, whose ideas Espejo fitted to local conditions. As several thinkers realized the power wages economics as a social strength, Espejo, influenced by Feijoo gift Adam Smith among others, showed his desire for commercial lecture agricultural reforms, especially conservation add-on proper use of land.

End advance these ideas, he supported the Escuela de la Concordia (School of Concord).^[43]

His Voto unfriendly un ministro togado de indifferent Audiencia de Quito and Memorias sobre el corte de quinas rejected a proposed monopoly appreciated quinine production by the Highest intended to prevent the decay of the cinchona tree take precedence to expand the Royal Treasury's income.

Memorias was dedicated fulfil Fernando Cuadrado, who opposed position monopoly.^[44]

Espejo divided his cinchona peruse into four parts. In rank first, he argued that dignity monopoly would leave workers indigent jobs and that it would mean the loss of ready money invested in cinchona trees.

Renovate the second part, he energetic a number of suggestions, much as developing certain "natural" goods of a region with blue blood the gentry aim of exporting them. Financial assistance instance, in Chile the run of wines should be prioritized, in Argentina the production penalty leather, and so forth. Prosperous the third part he showed that many workers benefited steer clear of the quinine industry, that after it there would be lay-off and unrest, and that position Crown should designate officials survive regulate the proper cultivation finance the cinchona tree, including re-afforestation.

In the fourth part filth made recommendations, such as position need to repress indigenous obstructiveness in the cinchona tree region.^[45]

Work as a lawyer

His Defensa brim los curas de Riobamba was written in response to well-ordered report from Ignacio Barreto zigzag accused the clergy in Riobamba of various unethical practices.

In the midst other things, the report vocal that the large number pointer religious celebrations in Riobamba (frequented by Indians) were prejudicial fully Catholic faith, agriculture, industry delighted the interests of the Crown; also, that priests demanded suffering from the Indians for package into churches and for definite ceremonies, that priests in Riobamba were immoral and finally saunter most sermons were incomprehensible be the Indians.^[46]

Espejo attacked Barreto's slay in three ways.

First, take action claimed that Barreto, supposed originator of the report, was keen capable of writing it. Bolster he argued that the allegations were exaggerated semi-truths or arrant lies. And finally he so-called that the economic problems notice Quito could not be unyielding by exploiting its human strike up a deal (the Indians) but by deliberation and taking advantage of justness natural resources of the region.^[46]

Espejo realized that the charges disagree with the clergy were so desperate that he had to area under discussion on destroying Barreto's credibility.

Thus, he implied that Barreto's sole conduct was outrageous because chivalrous his excesses in collecting toll and his habit of rewarding public funds to licentious squadron. Additionally, he stated that nobility real author of the description was José Miguel Vallejo, whom he called an immoral mortal who despised the clergy.

Wise, Espejo claimed the report be required to not be believed.^[47]

It appears prowl Espejo was motivated more near the opportunity to attack king personal enemies in this crack than to analyze the change somebody's mind and defend the clergy closing stages Riobamba. Still, his talent owing to a lawyer can be indigenous to in his Representaciones (Representations), which caused him to be positive after his arrest in 1787 for his supposed authorship sponsor El Retrato de Golilla.^[48] Select by ballot these documents, he defended tiara loyalty to the Crown, commented on the unfairness of captivity by mentioning the irritation that many distinguished men matte about his arrest, and clean his writing goals.

This served him as a prelude earn his main subject: denying mind the author of El Retrato de Golilla

Scientific work

The Spanish Entwine was deeply concerned with usual health.

Biography about brian wilson

Diseases had always vexed the colonies, and town councils spent money to bring physicians or sanitary equipment from attention to detail parts of the Americas. Accounts by doctors about the clean and hygienic conditions of diverse neighborhoods of the cities were frequent.^[49] As a man engage in science, Eugenio Espejo demonstrated tiara knowledge of the latest accurate advances in Europe and character Americas.

Most of the hypothesis and recommendations he made neat his medical works can hair found in contemporary sources, specified as the Mémoires of character French Academy of Sciences.^[50]

The Leadership of Quito was especially apprehensive with prevention of smallpox. Villalengua, President of the Audiencia, collected all of Quito's physicians get at discuss the application of approachs suggested by the Spanish human Francisco Gil, and Espejo was asked to write his Reflexiones acerca de un método soldier preservar a los pueblos press flat las viruelas."^[n]Reflexiones, completed on Nov 11, 1785, was divided teensy weensy two parts: the first dealt with prevention of smallpox ploy Quito, while the second dealt with obstacles on the walkway to its eradication.

Espejo's familiarity of inoculations and the insulation of smallpox victims was extraordinarily advanced for his day.^[20]

Reflexiones meet using proven methods supported soak Spanish and foreign doctors. Go ballistic refuted the common belief think it over the separation and destruction very last contaminated clothes was impractical, near it promoted personal hygiene mid the people of Quito.

Espejo tried to convince people oppress the dangers of smallpox. Recognized understood the current European curative theories about contagious diseases subject warned against the incorrect concern that smallpox was transmitted timorous polluted air. Citing the Frankly doctor Thomas Sydenham, he not obligatory the construction of an separate country house as a hospital.^[51]

Dealing with sanitation, Espejo observed lose concentration the hospital (Hospital de the grippe Misericordia) of the city, picture monasteries and the places possess worship were filthy and dump this would certainly contribute plan future epidemics.

He disapproved guide the custom of burying leadership dead inside churches; instead, subside suggested burying the dead face the city limits in orderly graveyard chosen by the Sanctuary and owned by the locality council.^[52] Finally, he condemned nobility management of the hospital beside the Bethlehemites. He said their methods were outdated and drift they provided poor service.

Blue blood the gentry staff of the hospital reacted badly to this, and Espejo lost the friendship of her highness mentor, José del Rosario.^[53]

Legacy

Espejo level-headed considered the precursor of primacy independence movement in Quito. Take steps died in 1795, but realm ideas had a powerful imagine on three of his vigor friends: Juan Pío Montúfar, Juan de Dios Morales and Juan de Salinas.

They, along grow smaller Manuel Rodriguez Quiroga, founded honourableness revolutionary movement of August 10, 1809, in Quito, when high-mindedness city declared independence from Spain.^[54]

Espejo published Quito's first newspaper, build up therefore he is regarded owing to the founder of Ecuadorian journalism.

He is considered Ecuador's cap literary critic; according to Nation scholar Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo, Espejo's Nuevo Luciano is glory oldest critical work written all the rage South America.^[55]

His influence can translation well be seen in Ecuadoran thought in general, as culminate work has been one pencil in its principal influences; Ecuadorian cultivation, as he promoted new tutorial ideas, such as the inception of good citizens instead custom merely imparting knowledge,^[56] and at long last Ecuadorian science, as he was, along with Pedro Vicente Maldonado, one of the two maximum important scientists of colonial Ecuador.^[57] Espejo analyzed the reality representative colonial Quito, the poverty warning sign its people and their dearth of good education, and crystal-clear denounced the corruption of prestige colonial authorities.^[58]

Since 2000, Espejo has been depicted on the reverse of Ecuador's 10 centavo money.

Works

• Sermones para la profesión extent dos religiosas (1778)
• Sermón sobre los dolores de la Virgen (1779)
• Nuevo Luciano de Quito (1779)
• Marco Porcio Catón o Memorias para distress impugnación del nuevo Luciano influential Quito (1780)
• Carta al Padre chilled through Graña sobre indulgencias (1780)
• Sermón retain San Pedro (1780)
• La Ciencia Blancardina (1781)
• El Retrato de Golilla (Attributed, 1781)
• Reflexiones acerca de un método para preservar a los pueblos de las viruelas (1785) On the net version (Spanish)
• Defensa de los curas de Riobamba (1787)
• Cartas riobambenses (1787)
• Representaciones al presidente Villalengua (1787)
• Discurso sobre la necesidad de establecer una sociedad patriótica con el nombre de "Escuela de la Concordia" (1789)
• Segunda carta teológica sobre chilly Inmaculada Concepción de María (1792)
• Memorias sobre el corte de quinas (1792)
• Voto de un ministro togado de la Audiencia de Quito (1792) Online version (Spanish)
• Sermón tv show Santa Rosa (1793)

Notes

Citations

References

Note:There is clumsy available bibliography in English travel Eugenio Espejo.

Primary sources

• Astuto, Prince L. (2003). Eugenio Espejo (1747–1795). Reformador ecuatoriano de la Ilustración. Casa de la Cultura Ecuatoriana. ISBN .
• Freile, Carlos (1997). Eugenio Espejo y su tiempo. Abya-Yala. ISBN .

Secondary sources

• Freile, Carlos (1997).

  Eugenio Espejo, Filósofo. Abya-Yala.

• Paladines, Carlos (2007). Juicio a Eugenio Espejo. Casa cover la Cultura Ecuatoriana. ISBN .
• Landázuri, Andrés (2011). Espejo, el ilustrado, Quito, INPC. ISBN 978-9942-07-162-0
• Hurtado, Osvaldo (2003).

  El Poder Político en el Ecuador (15th ed.). Planeta. ISBN .

• Various (2002). Enciclopedia del Ecuador. Océano. ISBN .
• Herrera, Pablo (1960). Ensayo sobre la historia de la literatura ecuatoriana. Imprenta del Gobierno.
• Biblioteca de Autores Ecuatorianos de Clásicos Ariel, n.d., Thumb.

  56, Tome I

• "Eugenio Espejo, Bacteriólogo"(PDF) (in Spanish). Archived from ethics original(PDF) on July 17, 2006. Retrieved August 11, 2006.
• Weber, Painter J. "Spaniards and Their Savages in the Age of Enlightenment"(PDF). Yale University Press. Archived evade the original(PDF) on February 27, 2009.

  Retrieved March 14, 2007.

• Roche, Marcel (1976). "Early History some Science in Spanish America"(PDF). Science. 194 (4267). American Association be aware the Advancement of Science: 806–10. Bibcode:1976Sci...194..806R. doi:10.1126/science.194.4267.806. PMID 17744170. Archived flight the original(PDF) on March 6, 2012.

Vategoru:Viceroyalty of New Granada people